The Effectiveness of an Interactive Augmented Reality E-Book Featuring Local Wisdom of Kalimantan Selatan on English Learning Outcomes
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.56294/saludcyt20252214Keywords:
Augmented reality, interactive e-book, local wisdom, English learning, elementary schoolAbstract
Introduction: The integration of Augmented Reality in education has been recognized as an effective way to increase student engagement and contextualize learning. Growing evidence demonstrates that technology-enhanced learning environments can significantly improve educational outcomes, yet substantial gaps remain in understanding how culturally embedded content affects learning effectiveness. However, research on Augmented Reality-based interactive e-books that incorporate local wisdom in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learning remains limited in culturally rich regions such as South Kalimantan**. This study addresses the critical need to bridge technological innovation with cultural relevance in elementary English education.**
Objective: This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of Augmented Reality-based interactive e-books featuring South Kalimantan's local wisdom on elementary students' English learning outcomes compared to conventional teaching methods.
Methods: This quasi-experimental study employed a controlled design to assess learning effectiveness across different student proficiency levels. A total of 163 fifth-grade students from six schools in Banjarmasin participated. Students were randomly assigned to an experimental group (n = 80), which used Augmented Reality-based e-books, and a control group (n = 83), which followed conventional methods. Primary variables measured included English vocabulary comprehension and contextual application skills. Data were collected using validated pre-tests and post-tests, and analyzed using ANCOVA to control for initial ability differences and independent t-tests to compare learning improvement between groups. Data analysis was conducted using SPSS version 26 with a significance level set at α = 0.05.
Results: The findings revealed that the experimental group significantly outperformed the control group in English vocabulary acquisition and contextual application (F = 28.798, p < 0.001, η²p = 0.352). Augmented Reality-based e-books were most effective for students with moderate English proficiency, showing an average improvement of 9.99 points over the control group. In contrast, high-proficiency students showed a slight redundancy effect, performing marginally better with conventional learning. The technology demonstrated differential effectiveness based on student ability levels, with moderate learners benefiting most from the culturally embedded content.
Conclusions: The study concludes that Augmented Reality-based interactive e-books integrating local wisdom significantly enhance English learning outcomes for students with moderate proficiency levels by providing contextual scaffolding and meaningful cultural content. However, high-proficiency learners may experience cognitive redundancy. The findings suggest that the effectiveness of Augmented Reality technology depends on careful consideration of student proficiency levels and appropriate content design. Future research should examine cognitive load and long-term retention to strengthen the pedagogical implications of Augmented Reality-enhanced EFL learning.
References
1. Nuraeni F, Malagola Y, Pratomo S, Putri HE. Trends of science technology engineering mathematics (STEM)-based learning at elementary school in Indonesia. Performance Evaluation. 2021;11:87–103. DOI: https://doi.org/10.25273/pe.v11i1.8805
2. Susanto T, Dwiyanti PB, Marini A, Sagita J, Safitri D, Soraya E. E-Book with Problem Based Learning to Improve Student Critical Thinking in Science Learning at Elementary School. Int J Interact Mob Technol. 2022;16:4–17. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3991/ijim.v16i20.32951
3. Zainil M, Kenedi A, Rahmatina, Indrawati T, Handrianto C. The Influence of STEM-Based Digital Learning on 6C Skills of Elementary School Students. Open Education Studies. 2024;6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/edu-2024-0039
4. Ziden AA, Ziden AAA, Ifedayo A. Effectiveness of Augmented Reality (AR) on Students’ Achievement and Motivation in Learning Science. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education. 2022; DOI: https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/11923
5. Lin Y, Yu Z. A meta‐analysis of the effects of augmented reality technologies in interactive learning environments (2012–2022). Computer Applications in Engineering Education. 2023;31:1111–31. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/cae.22628
6. Rauschnabel P, Felix R, Hinsch C, Shahab H, Alt F. What is XR? Towards a Framework for Augmented and Virtual Reality. Comput Hum Behav. 2022;133:107289. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107289
7. Syed TA, Siddiqui M, Abdullah HB, Jan S, Namoune A, Alzahrani A, et al. In-Depth Review of Augmented Reality: Tracking Technologies, Development Tools, AR Displays, Collaborative AR, and Security Concerns. Sensors (Basel, Switzerland). 2022;23. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/s23010146
8. Zhang J, Li G, Huang Q, Feng Q, Luo H. Augmented Reality in K–12 Education: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Literature from 2000 to 2020. Sustainability. 2022; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su14159725
9. Koumpouros Y. Revealing the true potential and prospects of augmented reality in education. Smart Learn Environ. 2024;11:2.
10. Karacan CG, Akoğlu K. Educational Augmented Reality Technology for Language Learning and Teaching: A Comprehensive Review. Education 3-13. 2021;9:68–79. DOI: https://doi.org/10.34293/education.v9i2.3715
11. Belda-Medina J, Calvo-Ferrer JR. Integrating augmented reality in language learning: pre-service teachers’ digital competence and attitudes through the TPACK framework. Education and Information Technologies. 2022;27:12123–46. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11123-3
12. Yang P, Zhang W. Effectiveness of augmented reality on EFL learner’s language gains: a meta-analysis. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching. 2024;19:48–63. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2024.2323529
13. Garzón J. An Overview of Twenty-Five Years of Augmented Reality in Education. Multimodal Technol Interact. 2021;5:37. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/mti5070037
14. Koumpouros Y. Revealing the true potential and prospects of augmented reality in education. Smart Learn Environ. 2024;11:2. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-023-00288-0
15. Ma L. An Immersive Context Teaching Method for College English Based on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning in Virtual Reality Technology. Mob Inf Syst. 2021;2021:2637439:1-2637439:7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/2637439
16. Zhang M. Virtual Situated Learning of Spoken English Based on Computer Simulation Technology. Int J Emerg Technol Learn. 2020;15:206–17. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v15i04.12939
17. Chang YS, Chen C, Liao CL. Enhancing English-Learning Performance through a Simulation Classroom for EFL Students Using Augmented Reality—A Junior High School Case Study. Applied Sciences. 2020; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/app10217854
18. Wedyan MO, Falah JFM, Elshaweesh O, Alfalah SFM, Alazab M. Augmented Reality-Based English Language Learning: Importance and State of the Art. Electronics. 2022;
19. Syarifudi Z, Suharjito S. Mobile Based for Basic English Learning Assessment with Augmented Reality. Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal. 2020;5:774–80. DOI: https://doi.org/10.25046/aj050297
20. Plooy E du, Casteleijn D, Franzsen D. Personalized adaptive learning in higher education: A scoping review of key characteristics and impact on academic performance and engagement. Heliyon. 2024;10. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e39630
21. El-Sabagh H. Adaptive e-learning environment based on learning styles and its impact on development students’ engagement. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education. 2021;18. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-021-00289-4
22. Jalaluddin I, Ismail L, Darmi R. Developing Vocabulary Knowledge among Low Achievers: Mobile Augmented Reality (MAR) Practicality. International Journal of Information and Education Technology. 2020;10:813–9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18178/ijiet.2020.10.11.1463
23. Majid SNA, Salam A. A Systematic Review of Augmented Reality Applications in Language Learning. Int J Emerg Technol Learn. 2021;16. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v16i10.17273
24. Ashley-Welbeck A, Vlachopoulos D. Teachers’ Perceptions on Using Augmented Reality for Language Learning in Primary Years Programme (PYP) Education. Int J Emerg Technol Learn. 2020;15:116–35. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v15i12.13499
25. Buchner J, Buntins K, Kerres M. The impact of augmented reality on cognitive load and performance: A systematic review. J Comput Assist Learn. 2021;38:285–303.
26. Jeffri NFS, Rambli DRA. A review of augmented reality systems and their effects on mental workload and task performance. Heliyon. 2021;7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06277
27. Wedyan MO, Falah JFM, Elshaweesh O, Alfalah SFM, Alazab M. Augmented Reality-Based English Language Learning: Importance and State of the Art. Electronics. 2022; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11172692
28. Mafruudloh N, Ahsanah F, Khoiriyah K. Developing mobile augmented reality in picture book for teaching English for young learners. Research and Development in Education (RaDEn). 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.22219/raden.v4i2.33722
29. Ebadi S, Ashrafabadi F. An exploration into the impact of augmented reality on EFL learners’ Reading comprehension. Education and Information Technologies. 2022;27:9745–65.
30. Wahyu Y, Suastra W, Sadia W, Suarni NK. The Effectiveness of Mobile Augmented Reality Assisted STEM-Based Learning on Scientific Literacy and Students’ Achievement. International Journal of Instruction. 2020;
31. Marini A, Sekaringtyas T, Safitri D, Lestari I, Suntari Y, Umasih, et al. Mobile Augmented Reality Learning Media with Metaverse to Improve Student Learning Outcomes in Science Class. Int J Interact Mob Technol. 2022;16:99–115. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3991/ijim.v16i07.25727
32. Anderson RC, Graham M. Creative potential in flux: The leading role of originality during early adolescent development. Thinking Skills and Creativity. 2021 June;40:100816. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2021.100816
33. Ahrabi-Nejad S, Collini RC, Miller-Way T, Patch SM, Rellinger A, Sempier T, et al. Fostering science-to-civics literacy through the development and assessment of a sea-level rise curriculum. Continental Shelf Research. 2022 May 15;241:104731. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csr.2022.104731
34. Ebadi S, Ashrafabadi F. An exploration into the impact of augmented reality on EFL learners’ Reading comprehension. Education and Information Technologies. 2022;27:9745–65. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11021-8
35. Cai Y, Pan Z, Liu M. Augmented reality technology in language learning: A meta-analysis. J Comput Assist Learn. 2022;38:929–45. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12661
36. Susandi A, Zamzani, Prabowo M. Leveraging local wisdom to enhance children’s language development in elementary schools. Cypriot Journal of Educational Sciences. 2025; DOI: https://doi.org/10.18844/cjes.v20i1.8071
37. Nurdiana R, Kumalasari D, Setiawan C, Daroini S. Significance of Local Wisdom in Preparing Arabic Teaching Materials. Tadris Al-’Arabiyyah: Jurnal Pendidikan Bahasa Arab dan Kebahasaaraban. 2023; DOI: https://doi.org/10.15575/ta.v2i2.26328
38. Dhar P, Rocks T, Samarasinghe RM, Stephenson G, Smith CM. Augmented reality in medical education: students’ experiences and learning outcomes. Medical Education Online. 2021;26.
39. Cabero-Almenara J, Barroso-Osuna J, Llorente-Cejudo C, Martinez M del MF. Educational Uses of Augmented Reality (AR): Experiences in Educational Science. Sustainability. 2019;
40. Cabero-Almenara J, Barroso-Osuna J, Llorente-Cejudo C, Martinez M del MF. Educational Uses of Augmented Reality (AR): Experiences in Educational Science. Sustainability. 2019; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su11184990
41. Santos M, Lübke A in W, Taketomi T, Yamamoto G, Rodrigo M, Sandor C, et al. Augmented reality as multimedia: the case for situated vocabulary learning. Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning. 2016;11. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s41039-016-0028-2
42. Zuo R, Li W, Zhang X. Augmented Reality and Student Motivation: A Systematic Review (2013-2024). Journal of Computers for Science and Mathematics Learning. 2025; DOI: https://doi.org/10.70232/jcsml.v2i1.23
43. Na H, Yun S. The effect of augmented reality on K-12 students’ motivation: a meta-analysis. Educational technology research and development. 2024;
44. Mokmin NAM, Su H, Jing C, Qi S. Impact of an AR-based learning approach on the learning achievement, motivation, and cognitive load of students on a design course. Journal of Computers in Education. 2023;11:557–74. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-023-00270-2
45. Álvarez-Marín A, Paredes-Velasco M, Velázquez-Iturbide J, Palma-Chilla L. Insights into usability, academic outcomes, and emotional responses in an AR-Interactive learning environment. Interactive Learning Environments. 2024;33:3147–61. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2024.2440862
46. Campos-Mesa M, Castañeda-Vázquez C, DelCastillo-Andrés Ó, González-Campos G. Augmented Reality and the Flipped Classroom—A Comparative Analysis of University Student Motivation in Semi-Presence-Based Education Due to COVID-19: A Pilot Study. Sustainability. 2022; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su14042319
47. Alzahrani NM. Augmented Reality: A Systematic Review of Its Benefits and Challenges in E-learning Contexts. Applied Sciences. 2020; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/app10165660
48. Na H, Yun S. The effect of augmented reality on K-12 students’ motivation: a meta-analysis. Educational technology research and development. 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-024-10385-7
49. Muñoz GFR, González DAY, Amores NVR, Proaño ÁFC. Augmented reality’s impact on STEM learning. Salud, Ciencia y Tecnología. 2024;
50. Tabriz ER, Sadeghi M, Tavana E, miri HH, Nabavi FH. Approaches for boosting self-confidence of clinical nursing students: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Heliyon. 2024;10. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e27347
51. Sun J, Ye SL, Yu SJ, Chiu TKF. Effects of Wearable Hybrid AR/VR Learning Material on High School Students’ Situational Interest, Engagement, and Learning Performance: the Case of a Physics Laboratory Learning Environment. Journal of Science Education and Technology. 2022;32:1–12. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-022-10001-4
52. Bölek KA, Jong G de, Henssen D. The effectiveness of the use of augmented reality in anatomy education: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Scientific Reports. 2021;11.
53. Chen FQ, Leng YF, Ge JF, Wang DW, Li C, Chen B, et al. Effectiveness of Virtual Reality in Nursing Education: Meta-Analysis. Journal of Medical Internet Research. 2020;22. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2196/preprints.18290
54. Binhomran K, Altalhab S. The impact of implementing augmented reality to enhance the vocabulary of young EFL learners. The JALT CALL Journal. 2021;17:23–44. DOI: https://doi.org/10.29140/jaltcall.v17n1.304
55. Krüger JM, Bodemer D. Application and Investigation of Multimedia Design Principles in Augmented Reality Learning Environments. Inf. 2022;13:74. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/info13020074
56. Altmeyer K, Kapp S, Thees M, Malone S, Kuhn J, Brünken R. The use of augmented reality to foster conceptual knowledge acquisition in STEM laboratory courses - Theoretical background and empirical results. Br J Educ Technol. 2020;51:611–28. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12900
57. Huang TC, Chen CC, Chou YW. Animating eco-education: To see, feel, and discover in an augmented reality-based experiential learning environment. Comput Educ. 2016;96:72–82. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2016.02.008
58. Teng M. The effectiveness of multimedia input on vocabulary learning and retention. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching. 2022;17:738–54. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2022.2131791
59. Katemba CV. Vocabulary Enhancement Through Multimedia Learning Among Grade 7th EFL Students. Mextesol Journal. 2022;
60. Dharma YP, Aristo TJV, Sijono S, Elisa H. ENGLISH LEARNING MEDIA BASED ON LOCAL WISDOM FOR TEACHING WRITING DESCRIPTIVE TEXT. Journal of English Educational Study (JEES). 2021; DOI: https://doi.org/10.31932/jees.v4i2.1327
61. Herika I, Yundayani A, Sundari H. The Effect of Local Wisdom-Based Reading Materials on Students’ Motivation in Learning English and Speaking Skills at SMP Kartini 1 Batam. EduInovasi: Journal of Basic Educational Studies. 2024;
62. Kang O, Rubin D, Lindemann S. Mitigating U.S. Undergraduates Attitudes Toward International Teaching Assistants. TESOL Quarterly. 2015;49:681–706. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.192
63. Lubis RU, Harahap SD, Hasibuan A. English Language Immersion: Local Wisdom-Based Reading Material for Naposo Nauli Bulung in EFL Context. E-Structural. 2023; DOI: https://doi.org/10.33633/es.v6i01.7801
64. Abdurrahman A, Abduh M. Banjarese: Self-Concept, Identity and River Culture. 2020;9:43–64. DOI: https://doi.org/10.24260/khatulistiwa.v9i2.1480
65. Rahmatullah M, Fitri F, Setiawan A. IDENTIFICATION OF ECONOMIC BEHAVIOR (DISTRIBUTION) IN THE “URANG BANJAR” RIVER CULTURE AS A SUPPLEMENT TO TEACHING MATERIALS IN HIGH SCHOOL. International Conference On Social Science Education Proceeding. 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.20527/jck1h289
66. Albantani A, Madkur A. Think Globally, Act Locally: The Strategy of Incorporating Local Wisdom in Foreign Language Teaching in Indonesia. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and English Literature. 2018;7:1–8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijalel.v.7n.2p.1
67. Shofyana MH, Aditama MG, Nugroho HI, Asmoro HT. Integrating Local Wisdom in Project-Based Learning to Improve Post-Pandemic English Learning. ENGLISH FRANCA : Academic Journal of English Language and Education. 2022;
68. Suryawati E, Osman K. Contextual learning: Innovative approach towards the development of students’ scientific attitude and natural science performance. Eurasia journal of mathematics, science and technology education. 2017;14:61–76. DOI: https://doi.org/10.12973/ejmste/79329
69. Tari DK, Rosana D. Contextual Teaching and Learning to Develop Critical Thinking and Practical Skills. Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 2019;1233. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1233/1/012102
70. Suherman S, Zafirah A, Agusti F, Usman R. The Effectiveness of AR-Geometry Interactive Book in Increasing Students’ Mathematical Reasoning Skill. Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 2020;1554. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1554/1/012075
71. Qomariah C, Yulia NKT. Implementation of Interactive Books Based on Local Wisdom and STEAM as Creative Learning in Islamic Early Childhood Education. ThufuLA: Jurnal Inovasi Pendidikan Guru Raudhatul Athfal. 2023; DOI: https://doi.org/10.21043/thufula.v11i2.21224
72. Rosyidah F, Susantini E, Puspitawati R, Nursanti A. Development of an E-Book Based on Local Wisdom of Fish Ponds in Gresik to Train Scientific Reasoning Skills. JPPS (Jurnal Penelitian Pendidikan Sains). 2023; DOI: https://doi.org/10.26740/jpps.v12n3.p192-206
73. Dhar P, Rocks T, Samarasinghe RM, Stephenson G, Smith CM. Augmented reality in medical education: students’ experiences and learning outcomes. Medical Education Online. 2021;26. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10872981.2021.1953953
74. Yulia NM, Suttrisno S. Developing Local Wisdom-Based Augmented Reality Modules for Science and Social Studies Learning in Elementary Schools. AL-ISHLAH: Jurnal Pendidikan. 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.35445/alishlah.v16i4.5987
75. Zhu X, Wang G. Impact of Agricultural Cooperatives on Farmers’ Collective Action: A Study Based on the Socio-Ecological System Framework. Agriculture. 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14010096
76. Campbell A. Design-based research principles for successful peer tutoring on social media. Int J Math Educ Sci Technol. 2019;50(7):1024–36. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0020739X.2019.1650306
77. Buchner J, Buntins K, Kerres M. The impact of augmented reality on cognitive load and performance: A systematic review. Computer Assisted Learning. 2022 Feb;38(1):285–303. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12617
78. Geng X, Yamada M. An augmented reality learning system for Japanese compound verbs: study of learning performance and cognitive load. Smart Learn Environ. 2020 Dec;7(1):27. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-020-00137-4
79. Poupard M, Larrue F, Sauzéon H, Tricot A. A systematic review of immersive technologies for education: Learning performance, cognitive load and intrinsic motivation. Brit J Educational Tech. 2025 Jan;56(1):5–41. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13503
80. Skulmowski A, Xu KM. Understanding Cognitive Load in Digital and Online Learning: a New Perspective on Extraneous Cognitive Load. Educ Psychol Rev. 2022 Mar;34(1):171–96. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-021-09624-7
81. Bertrand M, Sezer H, Namukasa I. Exploring AR and VR Tools in Mathematics Education Through Culturally Responsive Pedagogies. Digital Experiences in Mathematics Education. 2024;10:462–86. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40751-024-00152-x
82. Alkhabra Y, Ibrahem UM, Alkhabra S. Augmented reality technology in enhancing learning retention and critical thinking according to STEAM program. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications. 2023;10:1–10. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-01650-w
83. Bora D, Ceyhun K, Muzaffer Ö, Meltem B. Revisiting the modality and redundancy effect in an augmented reality-based language learning environment. i-manager’s Journal of Educational Technology. 2022; DOI: https://doi.org/10.26634/jet.19.3.19174
84. Jung T, Lee H, Chung N, Dieck MT tom. Cross-cultural differences in adopting mobile augmented reality at cultural heritage tourism sites. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management. 2018;30:1621–45. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-02-2017-0084
85. Köse H, Güner-Yildiz N. Augmented reality (AR) as a learning material in special needs education. Education and Information Technologies. 2020;26:1921–36. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-020-10326-w
86. Khusna N, Pangesti T. Integrating Local Wisdom in Independent Learning: Urgency and Innovative Strategies. PrimaryEdu : Journal of Primary Education. 2024;
87. Zaki A, Mulbar U, Husniati A, Naufal MA. Integrating Local Wisdom with Project-Based Learning to Enhance 21st-Century Skills in the Society 5.0 Era. Journal of Ecohumanism. 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.62754/joe.v3i7.4341
88. Tene T, Tixi JAM, Robalino M de LP, Salazar MJM, Gomez CV, Bellucci S. Integrating immersive technologies with STEM education: a systematic review. Frontiers in Education. 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2024.1410163
89. Bölek KA, Jong G de, Henssen D. The effectiveness of the use of augmented reality in anatomy education: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Scientific Reports. 2021;11. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-94721-4
90. Irshad S, Lone A. Adverse childhood experiences and their influence on psychological well-being and emotional intelligence among university students. BMC Psychology. 2025;13. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02565-8
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Isnaniah, Marlina, Rahma Pitria Ningsih (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
The article is distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. Unless otherwise stated, associated published material is distributed under the same licence.
